Ball spin rate measurement

ABSTRACT

Spin rate measurement utilizing periodic phase modulation of the radar Doppler signal reflected from a golf ball is described. Some embodiments provide a method to directly measure the ball spin rate caused by the symmetrical structure of the golf ball seam, using the dielectric lens effect of a practical sports ball to magnify the modulating effect of a non-homogeneous feature on the ball, and utilizing the specific pattern of modulation caused in this manner.

RELATED APPLICATIONS AND CLAIM OF PRIORITY

This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. 119(e) to U.S.Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/751,182, inventors Johnson etal, entitled “Ball Spin Rate Measurement” filed Jan. 10, 2013, which isincorporated herein by reference in its entirety and made a part hereof.

BACKGROUND

The trajectory of a golf ball is mainly determined by the initialconditions of velocity, direction, and spin rate.

Many systems in the golf ball launch monitor category which is intendedto measure spin rate depend on applying marks to the surface of the golfball. This limits the utility of these systems due to the effortrequired and makes it unacceptable when a launch monitor is used forexample on the tee at a professional golf tournament where ball markingis not possible.

Thus, it would be beneficial to provide a means to reliably andaccurately measure the spin rate of an unmarked ball. It would befurther beneficial to provide a means to measure the spin rate of anunmarked ball using Doppler radar.

SUMMARY

In one example, a method of determining a spin rate of a projectilecomprises receiving a reflected signal of microwave radiation incidenton the projectile during a rotational trajectory of the projectile, theprojectile including a non-homogeneous feature at or near a surface ofthe projectile; detecting, by at least one processor, modulation of thereflected signal attributable to the feature; and calculating the spinrate of the projectile based on the detected modulation.

In one embodiment, a system comprises a Doppler radar configured toreceive a reflected signal of microwave radiation incident on aprojectile during a rotational trajectory of the projectile, theprojectile including a non-homogeneous feature at or near a surface ofthe projectile; a demodulator in communication with the Doppler radarand configured to process the reflected signal to identify modulation ofthe reflected signal attributable to the feature; and at least oneprocessor in communication with the demodulator and configured tocalculate a spin rate of the projectile based on the identifiedmodulation.

DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The example embodiments may be better understood, and its numerousfeatures and advantages made apparent to those skilled in the art byreferencing the accompanying drawings and descriptions provided in theDetailed Description. For ease of understanding and simplicity, commonnumbering of elements within the illustrations is employed where anelement is the same in different drawings. In the drawings, which arenot necessarily drawn to scale, like numerals may describe similarcomponents in different views. In some instances, different numerals maydescribe similar components in different views. Like numerals havingdifferent letter suffixes may represent different instances of similarcomponents. The drawings illustrate generally, by way of example, butnot by way of limitation, various embodiments discussed in the presentdocument.

FIG. 1 illustrates aspects of a golf ball construction, in accordancewith example embodiments.

FIG. 2 illustrates aspects of a golf ball lens effect resulting fromelectromagnetic wave refraction, in accordance with example embodiments.

FIG. 3 illustrates aspects of Doppler velocity of a target in amagnification zone, in accordance with example embodiments.

FIG. 4 illustrates aspects of a ball spin measurement system, inaccordance with example embodiments.

FIGS. 5A-5B illustrate aspects of lens action during ball rotation, inaccordance with example embodiments.

FIG. 6 illustrates aspects of Doppler velocity of a magnified target, inaccordance with example embodiments.

FIG. 7 illustrates aspects of measured Doppler variations with a markedtarget, in accordance with example embodiments.

FIG. 8 illustrates aspects of phase demodulated signals, in accordancewith example embodiments.

FIG. 9 illustrates aspects of frequency analysis, in accordance withexample embodiments.

FIG. 10 is a block diagram illustrating operations in a method, inaccordance with example embodiments.

FIG. 11 is a block diagram of a machine in the example form of acomputer system within which a set of instructions may be executed forcausing the machine to perform any one or more of the methodologiesherein discussed, in accordance with example embodiments.

FIG. 12 is a graph illustrating aspects of velocity and phase modulationsideband curves, in accordance with example embodiments.

FIG. 13-14 illustrate graphs relating to aspects of golf ball spinmeasurement, in accordance with example embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION How Spin Relates to a Golf Ball Trajectory

The trajectory of a golf ball is determined by its launch conditions,atmospheric conditions, and physical characteristics of the ball itself.A golfer aims to launch the ball with a speed, angles, and spin toachieve his objectives during a golf game. He uses a chosen golf balland is subject to the prevailing atmospheric conditions.

Spin (rotational velocity) plays an important part in a ball's flighttrajectory. Modern golf balls have carefully crafted dimple patterns tocreate optimal air flow over the surface of the ball. Spin results in anaerodynamic force that operates in a direction perpendicular to theball's direction. The component of spin in the vertical plane is calledbackspin. The aerodynamic force acting in the vertical plane is referredto as “lift” and it has the important effect of opposing the force ofgravity, causing the flying ball to fall more slowly and achievinggreater flight (carry) distance before hitting the ground. The componentof spin in the horizontal plane is called sidespin. Sidespin creates aforce in the horizontal plane perpendicular to the ball's direction.This horizontal force will cause the ball trajectory to curve left orright depending on the spin direction in the horizontal plane.

Air friction will cause the ball to lose both forward and rotationalspeed. The spin will therefore decay over the flight time.

Why Spin is Measured

To improve golf equipment and golfers skills it is useful to measure thelaunch and trajectory of a golf shot. One of the data items measured isthe golf ball spin at launch.

How Spin is Measured

Over the years, equipment and methods have been devised to measure golfball spin, usually called launch monitors or ball-tracking systems.Methods include golf balls instrumented with radio or soundtransmitters, or remote sensing devices including radar type sensors,cameras and other imaging devices, and laser devices. Most systemsmeasure only launch spin, and not the decay of spin along the flightpath. Indirect methods are also used to estimate spin from fitting themeasured trajectory to a mathematical model that includes spin as avariable

Some camera based systems require the golf ball to be marked in apredetermined way for spin to be measured. Other camera systems are ableto work with regular unmarked golf balls. Radar sensors detectspin-induced modulations of the Doppler shifted signal reflected fromthe golf ball. Indirect methods are also used to estimate spin from themeasured trajectory, based on a mathematical model that includes spin asa variable.

Construction of a Golf Ball

FIG. 1 illustrates the construction of a typical modern golf ball. Aninner core 102, which may be a composite of more than one concentriclayer, is covered by an outer shell which is fabricated as two hollowhemispheres 101 and 103. This outer shell is made of a tough impact andabrasion resistant material and has a dimpled outer pattern. The shells101 and 103 are bonded together around the core 102 to form the finishedball 104. This method creates a line where the two shell halves meet,called the seam 105. Some ball manufacturers print text or marks toindicate the seam position.

Set-Up of a Doppler Radar to Measure a Golf Ball

In one embodiment, a Doppler radar to measure a golf ball launch andflight is positioned on or near the ground, several feet behind the tee,and aimed at the golf ball along the direction that it will be launched.This position ensures that it is safe from the club and the ball, andallows the radar field of view to cover much of the ball's trajectory.It also ensures that the ball travels more or less directly away fromthe radar with small parallax effects on the Doppler shift, and whichcan be compensated for if needed.

A Doppler Radar Suited to Track a Golf Ball

One way to construct a Doppler radar for golf ball tracking is by usinga low power continuous wave (CW) signal source delivering a signal ofapproximately several milliwatts of power at a frequency of around10.525 GHz into a transmitting antenna with approximately 20×20 degreescoverage in the horizontal and vertical directions. Combined with this,at least one, but typically 3 or more receivers each comprising areceiving antenna with field of view corresponding to that of thetransmitting antenna and receiver circuitry that produces a Dopplersignal, which is the filtered product of the received signal and thetransmitted signal. The received Doppler signal(s) can be sampled by aprocessing unit able to analyze the signals to extract ball speed, balldirections, and other important data.

Doppler Shift from a Golf Ball

Assuming that the golf ball is travelling approximately directly away(or towards) a Doppler radar, the signal reflected back to the radarfrom the ball will be Doppler shifted. The phenomenon of Doppler shiftis well known in the fields of electromagnetic radiation and sound.

The Doppler shift imparted to a constant frequency radar signal iscalculated as

f _(DOPPLER) =V _(TARGET)/(2*C*f _(RADAR))

where V_(TARGET) is the speed relative to the radar, C is the speed ofelectromagnetic radiation (approximately 3×10⁸ m/s) and f_(RADAR) is thefrequency of the radar signal.

In a non-spinning ball, all the parts of the ball visible to the radarare travelling at the same speed relative to the radar and contributethe same amount of Doppler shift.

In a spinning golf ball, various parts of the ball move at differentspeeds relative to the radar, due to the rotational movement combinedwith the translational movement. The reflected signal will exhibitDoppler spreading around the average ball speed. The amount of spread isproportional to the spin rate.

Spin Induced Modulation of the Reflected Doppler Signal

The rotational motion of a practical radar target with at least onenon-homogeneous feature will cause changes to the reflected Dopplersignal. The changes manifest as modulation of the Doppler signal, andare periodic in nature with a rate being proportional to the target'srotation rate (or spin rate). Such Doppler signal may have amplitudemodulation (AM) and/or angle modulation. Angle modulation can befrequency modulation (FM) or phase modulation (PM).

Golf Ball Features Causing Spin Modulation of the Doppler Signal

The rotational motion of a golf ball modulates the reflected Dopplersignal. On an unmarked golf ball the set of dimples, individual dimples,or surface marks such as the manufacturer's logo printed on the ballsurface have been mentioned as the mechanisms that cause the modulationeffect. Several methods are also used to mark golf balls with forexample metal tape to magnify the modulating effect of the spinningball.

Golf Ball as a Radar Target

A golf ball is generally a weak radar target due to its small size andcomposition. It is not made of a conductive material but insteadreflects energy due to the change in dielectric characteristics at theair to ball interface. In this way, only a part of the incident signalenergy reflects from the surface of the ball, and the remainder partpropagates into the ball, refracting in the ball body and reflectingonce more when it reaches the far surface of the ball.

Golf Ball Acting as a Lens

A golf ball can act as a lens to magnify the modulating effect of afeature on or near the surface of the ball. The feature can be adeliberate mark such as a small metal foil disk on the surface, or be aconstruction feature of the ball such as the ball seam.

Embodiments of the invention are based on the principle that a golf ballis similar to an optical ball lens. The refraction index of the typicalpolymers used as golf ball core materials causes the ball to act like alens with focal point near the opposing surface of the ball.

With reference to FIG. 2, the lens effect is discussed below in thecontext of a Doppler radar measuring a golf ball travelling away fromit.

The lens effect is caused as follows. A golf ball 21 composed of typicalsynthetic plastic materials may cause the electromagnetic waves 22 torefract while propagating inside the ball. The paths of the refractedwaves are illustrated as 23. The refraction result in the wave paths toconverge at a focal point 25 which can be on or near the opposing ballsurface. A magnifying zone 24 is created due to the lens effect.

The lens effect has the following beneficial and particularcharacteristics:

The size of a feature on or near the surface of the golf ball ismagnified to an observer or measuring instrument such as a radar, on theopposing side of the golf ball.

The magnifying effect also applies to the apparent speed and hence theDoppler effect of the feature.

The magnifying effect applies only while the feature is on the side ofthe ball away from the observer or radar, and only in the zone that thelens allows. For the remainder of time, the feature will be obscuredwhile behind the ball, or be very small compared to the magnified imageof the feature. Correspondingly the modulating effect on the Dopplersignal will be small compared to the effect when the feature is in thelens magnifying zone.

The time instant when the Doppler signal is modulated corresponds towhen the feature is traversing the far side of the ball. This uniquecharacteristic can be taken as scientific proof that the golf ball actsas a lens.

The magnified feature will modulate the Doppler signal in a particularmanner. It will cause an increase in the amplitude of the Doppler returnsignal due to the increased apparent size. It will also, when thefeature enters the lens zone, initially retard (delay) the phase of theDoppler return signal and after passing the furthest back point willcontinue to advance (bring forward) the phase of the Doppler signal.Retarding the phase will also manifest as a lowering in reflectedfrequency while a phase advance will cause an increase in the reflectedfrequency. It can be shown that the lowering of the reflected frequencyfrom a golf ball travelling away from a Doppler radar is equivalent toincreasing the speed apparent to the radar, and vice versa.

This is a second unique characteristic of the modulating effectconsistent with the assertion that a golf ball acts as a lens.

The Golf Ball Seam

The seam of a golf ball is formed where two halves of the golf ballouter cover is joined. Some golf balls have clearly visible seams whileothers are manufactured with an interlocking pattern between the twohalves making the seam less obvious. Whatever the method ofconstruction, an equatorial joint between the two halves is present.Sometimes manufacturers may call balls “seamless”, but it simply meansthat the joint line is not straight but has an interlocking pattern withno visible break line in the dimple pattern. Broadly speaking howeverthe joint still forms an equatorial band around the ball with or withoutsmall local variations.

How the Seam Modulates the Doppler Signal

With reference to FIG. 5A, a seam 56 of a golf ball is a symmetricalnon-homogeneous feature on the ball that can modulate the Doppler signalreflected from a spinning golf ball.

As a simplified analysis, consider an unmarked golf ball with only backspin 55 around a spin axis that is perpendicular to the ball flightdirection 53. Also assume that the ball seam is oriented so that thespin axis is in the plane of the seam. In this configuration, the seamwill cause a modulation effect at twice the spin rate due to itssymmetry; the opposing halves of seam will alternately pass throughpositions of reflection that can impart modulation on the radar signals50. This phenomenon is similar to the case where a single slot in thebase of an artillery projectile produces a modulating effect on aDoppler signal at twice the projectile spin rate.

The effect can be generalized to other practical orientations of spinaxis and seam orientations. It is expected that the seam can causemodulation of the Doppler signal at double the spin rate for all casesexcept if the seam is precisely perpendicular to the spin axis in whichcase its modulation effect will be minimal. In a random experiment, itcan be expected that the seam will cause the double rate modulation farmore often than not, providing a practical means for golf ball spinmeasurement. In the minority of cases where the seam does not contributedetectable spin modulation, secondary or alternative non-homogeneitiessuch as print or other marks can cause modulation at a rate of once perrotation.

Spin Induced Modulation of the Reflected Doppler Signal

The secondary periodic or random motions of a travelling body measuredby a Doppler radar will cause modulation effects in the Doppler signal.These secondary motions can be for example a rotation (spin). Themodulation will appear as amplitude and/or phase modulation on theDoppler signal.

Determination of the spin rate using demodulation of the Doppler signaldescribed herein provides an improvement over conventional detection ofspin rates using amplitude modulation or phase modulation.

FFT-Analysis of Demodulated Doppler

FIG. 12 illustrates the a phase modulated Doppler signal of a spinningprojectile whose speed typically decreases with time due to factors suchas atmospheric drag.

A signal representing the time-varying modulation induced by theprojectile's spin can be extracted as the error signal of a Phase LockTracking Filter [REF. 1]. FIG. 8 illustrates the error signaldemodulated from the Doppler signal from a real golf ball, whose spinwas determined by an independent instrument as approximately 3300revolutions per minute. The frequency of spin can be determined by anyknown method of frequency analysis on this error signal. FIG. 9illustrates a frequency analysis of the error signal of FIG. 8. Theprincipal oscillatory frequency 91 can be seen at approximately 110 Hz(cycles per second). This is equal to 6600 cycles per minute, which istwice the actual ball spin rate, which can be expected if the modulationis caused by the ball seam as discussed before.

Modulation Sidebands

A modulating signal which is a pure single frequency can be used tocause Amplitude or Phase Modulation on a carrier signal. The modulationwill create sidebands spaced symmetrically about both sides of thefrequency of the carrier signal, at distances equal to the multiples ofthe frequency of the modulating signal. Amplitude modulation createsonly one pair of sidebands spaced at precisely the modulation frequencybelow and above the carrier frequency. Angle modulation is more complexand creates multiple sideband pairs around the carrier frequency. Thesepairs are spaced at harmonic multiples of the modulating frequency aboveand below the carrier frequency. The relative amplitude of each pair isdependent on the intensity (degree) of modulation usually called themodulation index. If the modulation index is small, higher orderharmonics can be very small with only a first pair perceptible,practically appearing similar to pure amplitude modulation.

Characteristics of Modulation with the Ball Lens Effect

Consider an unmarked golf ball travelling away from a Doppler radar atspeed VB, and with a spin rate S. Assume for the moment that the ballhas at least one non-homogeneous feature with distinctive reflective ordielectric characteristics on its surface, and that passes approximatelythrough the point of the ball furthest away from the radar once perrotation.

Assume also that the ball is far enough from the radar that any twolines from the body of the ball to the position of the radar isapproximately parallel to each other.

Reflecting, Scattering and Propagation at the Air to Ball Boundary

Incident microwave radiation arrives at the ball and at any particularpoint the direction of the incident radiation forms an angle TETA1 withthe normal to the ball surface.

Where the radar signal reaches the ball, a part of the microwave energywill reflect or scatter from the surface and the remainder willpropagate into the ball material.

The fraction of energy reflected can be calculated using the knowledgeof the dielectric constants of the golf ball and air as follows:

E reflected+scattered=reflection coefficient R=(Z1−Z0)/(Z1+Z0)

and where Z0=characteristic impedance of air, and the characteristicimpedance of the golf ball elastomer Z1=Z0/SQRT(EPS2) whereEPS2=relative dielectric constant of the ball elastomer. As n2 (therefraction coefficient in the ball elastomer) is equal to the squareroot of the relative dielectric constant EPS2, the reflectioncoefficient can be calculated as: R=(1−n2)/(1+n2), with n1 therefraction index of air which is approximately unity.

If ETA2=1.8, the reflection coefficient is approximately 0.28. Thismeans that 72% of the incident energy propagates across the air/ballboundary into the ball.

Refraction in the Ball

The elastomer forming the core of the golf ball is typically a resinacrylate with a relative dielectric constant EPS of between 2.7 and 4.5.For further discussion assume a ball with dielectric constant of 3.24 isused. The dielectric constant of air is approximately equal to 1.

The refractive index of any medium is equal to the square root of themedium's relative dielectric constant. Hence the refractive index of air(n1) is approximately 1.00 and the refractive index of a typical ball(n2) is approximately 1.8.

A microwave signal arriving at a point A has a direction TETA1 relativeto the normal to the ball surface. The part of the signal propagatinginto the ball body will be refracted according to Snell's law:sin(TETA1)/sin(TETA2)=n2/n1 where TETA1 is the incident angle (relativeto the normal), TETA2 is the angle of the refracted signal, n1 is therefractive index of air, and n2 is the refractive index of the ballmaterial. From this law it can be shown that, because n2 is larger thann1, the angle TETA2 is smaller than TETA1, meaning that the path of thesignal will be bent in a direction nearer to the center of the ball.This refraction process is the basis for the ball acting as a lens.

Focal Length of a Ball Lens

The focal point of a ball lens is at the effective focal length (EFL)calculated from the relationship EFL=n2*R/(2*(n2−1)), where EFL is theeffective focal distance defined from the lens centre to the focalpoint, R=radius of the ball, and n2 is the refractive index of the corematerial. Using the above formula it is easy to show that a ball lensmade of a material with refractive index of 2 will have an EFL equal tothe radius of the ball R. This means that the focal point will be on thesurface of the ball. For other practical values of refractive index, thefocal point will not be on the ball surface, but will fall in a narrowrange of possible positions near the surface. The result is that anobject such as a marker or other detectable feature on the surface willappear “magnified” when viewed by the radar on the opposite side of theball.

Doppler Effect Generated by a Magnified Feature on the Ball Surface

A feature on the golf ball with reflective characteristicsdistinguishable from the rest of the golf ball can be referred to as a“target”.

The rotation of the spinning ball can cause a target to move into thearea or zone where, from the perspective of the observing Doppler radar,it will be magnified due to the lens effect.

Two mechanisms that can act to cause a target magnified by the lenseffect to modulate the Doppler signal reflected from the ball are nowdescribed. In some embodiments, for simplicity assume that the target ison the surface of the ball, that the ball spins around an axisperpendicular to the line between the Doppler radar and the ball center,and that the target is positioned on the equator relative to the spinaxis of the ball. These simplifications can be relaxed later togeneralize the method.

Mechanism 1

FIG. 5B illustrates a golf ball 51 with simple backspin 55 around a spinaxis perpendicular to the ball flight direction 53.

The spin 55 causes a feature on the ball 57 (the “target”) to move in acircle in a plane perpendicular to the spin axis of the ball. The ballrotation will cause the target to pass through the magnification zone 54on the far side of the ball where its reflection will be magnified bythe ball's lens action on the radar signals 50.

While the target is outside the magnifying zone, all the elements of theball such as its front surface, the collection of individual dimples,the target itself (with unmagnified response) and other features willcollectively reflect signals towards the radar. The collective refectionwill be spatially centered on the side of the ball closest to the radar.

When the target moves into and through the magnifying zone, itsreflection becomes dominant. FIG. 6 illustrates the relative Dopplervelocity of a dominant target progressing through the magnificationzone.

When in the magnification zone, the target's is on the far side of theball, and this creates an effect of rapid forward movement from theprevious “average” collective position of the ball reflectors to a newmore distant position. This apparent position change causes an equalrapid phase change in the reflected signal that is akin to a rapidmomentary speed increase 63. A converse effect happens when the targetmoves out of the magnifying zone, when the average position of thecollection of reflectors on the ball will appear to move backwardstowards the radar, creating a rapid phase advance (or apparent negativespeed) change 62 in the reflected signal. This effect will be repeatedperiodically every for every rotation of the ball. This processmodulates the phase of the reflected signal at the rate at which atarget rotates, its effect being enhanced by passing through themagnifying zone.

Another feature of the target's enhanced modulating effect whiletransiting the magnification zone is that the magnifying effect is onlyactive for a part of the ball's rotation. This is illustrated by thespan 64 of the modulation relative to a full 360 degree rotation 61 ofthe ball.

Amplitude modulation can also be expected due to the magnified targetsize compared to the average of the ball's reflections.

Thus, a feature of this process is that it modulates the phase in a waythat initially increases the ball's apparent away speed momentarilyfollowed by a momentary decrease in the ball's apparent speed. This isunique to the ball lens effect.

FIG. 7 shows the measured Doppler return signal from a marked golf ball.The ball is launched at the time indicated by 71. The average Dopplerspeed representing the ball's forward motion is indicated as 72. Thetarget marker transits periodically through the magnifying zone causingvisible periodic variation patterns for example 73.

Mechanism 2

FIG. 5B illustrates a golf ball 51 with simple backspin 55 around a spinaxis perpendicular to the ball flight direction 53.

The spin 55 causes a feature on the ball 57 (the “target”) to move in acircle in a plane perpendicular to the spin axis of the ball. The ballrotation will cause the target to pass through the magnification zone 54on the far side of the ball where its reflection will be magnified bythe ball's lens action on the radar signals 50.

While the target is outside the magnifying zone 54, all the elements ofthe ball such as its front surface, the collection of individualdimples, the target itself (with unmagnified response) and otherfeatures reflect signals towards the radar.

When the target moves into and through the magnifying zone 54, itsreflection becomes dominant. When it enters the magnifying zone, itsvelocity vector VT has a component parallel to the radar direction and acomponent in the radar direction. This second component is initially inthe direction of the ball's movement and its relative speed is thereforethe sum of the ball's apparent speed and the magnitude of the component.

The magnifying effect of the ball not only increases the apparent sizeof the target but also its speed.

A simplified model of the process, treating the process with optical raytheory, is as follows:

Let

S=ball rotational rate in Hz

R=radius of the ball, in meters

n2=refractive index of ball core

n1=refractive index of air (approximately 1.00)

The path L of the incident radar signal reaches the ball at position P1.

The angle between the signal path and the normal to the ball surface atthis position is A1.

The angle of the refracted path to the normal is AR, and is calculatedfrom Snell's law as arcsin [(n1/n2)*sin(AI)].

The distance q traversed by the refracted signal to the oppositeboundary of the ball at point P2 is calculated as R*sin(π−2*AR)/sin(AR).For the discussion, assume that the target is at this point P2.

At the ball center, the angle between the center line F and a line topoint P2 is A2. A2 can be calculated as 2*AR−AI.

The target has a tangential speed VR=2*π*S*R meters per second, where Sis the ball spin rate in rotations per second.

The component of this speed in the direction of the line between theball and the radar is calculated as VDOPP=VR*sin(A2).

Solving for A2 and AR in terms of AI and n2, the Doppler velocity at apoint P2 can be calculated as

VDOPP=2*π*S*R*sin [2*arcsin((n1/n2)*sin(AI))−AI]

The moment at which the target first becomes visible is when theincident signal reaches point P1 at an angle reaching 90 degrees. Therefracted angle at this position is AR=arcsin[(n1/n2)*sin(90)] which isapproximately AR=arcsin(1/n2). The angle A2 of the corresponding targetposition P2 for this incidence is the boundary of the visibility ormagnification zone of the lens.

For example, for a golf ball with relative dielectric constant of 3.24and corresponding refractive index n2 of 1.8, the angle A2 for theextreme incident angle of 90 degrees is calculated as

$\begin{matrix}{{A\; 2} = {2*{AR}\text{-}{AI}}} \\{= {{2*56.25} - {90\mspace{14mu} {degrees}}}} \\{= {22.5\mspace{14mu} {degrees}}}\end{matrix}$

Where AR was calculated from

$\begin{matrix}{{A\; R} = {\arcsin \left\lbrack {\left( {n\; {1/n}\; 2} \right)*{\sin ({AI})}} \right\rbrack}} \\{= {\arcsin \left\lbrack {\left( {1/1.8} \right)*{\sin (90)}} \right\rbrack}} \\{= {56.25\mspace{14mu} {degrees}}}\end{matrix}$

The Doppler velocity at the point P2 is calculated as

$\begin{matrix}{{VDOPP} = {2*\pi*S*R*{\sin \left\lbrack {{2*{\arcsin \left( {\left( {n\; {1/n}\; 2} \right)*{\sin ({AI})}} \right)}} - {AI}} \right\rbrack}}} \\{= {2*\pi*50*0.021*{\sin \left\lbrack {{2*{\arcsin \left( {\left( {1/1.8} \right)*{\sin (90)}} \right)}} - 90} \right\rbrack}}} \\{= {2.52\mspace{14mu} {meters}\mspace{14mu} {per}\mspace{14mu} {second}}}\end{matrix}$

The Doppler velocity component along the line from the radar to the ballchanges over time. FIG. 3 illustrates a golf ball 31 with a linearforward velocity 32 and rotational velocity, or spinning motion, 33. Afeature 35 on the ball surface has a tangential velocity 38 calculatedfrom the spin rate 33 and the ball radius 34. At this position, theDoppler speed component of the target 39 can be determined from thegeometry and from the ball's refraction index value. This Doppler speedcomponent is time varying. Initially it is in the same direction as theball's linear forward velocity 32. When the feature 35 reaches thefurthest opposing point on the ball, the Doppler speed component 39 willbecome zero. As the ball continues to rotate, the feature 35 willdevelop a Doppler velocity component 39 in a direction opposite to theball's linear forward velocity 32. Overall, the time-varying Dopplershift caused by feature 35 will add to (be superimposed on) the Dopplershift from the linear forward velocity 32.

Marking a Golf Ball

It may be advantageous to deliberately mark the surface of a golf ballwith a modulation-producing feature. This may be to enhance the amountof modulation of the reflected signal during measurement, so that themodulation can be more readily detected and measured.

One such form of marking may be one or more small pieces of conductivematerial glued to the ball surface. Another form of marking could be touse a non-conductive material but with a relative dielectric constantsubstantially different from that of the ball material. Another form ofmarking may be to embed the marker(s) under the skin of the ball duringmanufacture.

It may be advantageous to deliberately mark the surface of a golf ballwith a modulation-producing feature. One such form of marking may be oneor more small pieces of conductive material glued to the ball surface.Another form of marking could be to use a non-conductive material butwith a relative dielectric constant

Separating a Second Modulating Signal

FIG. 13 illustrates how a first modulating signal m1(t) can be modeledas a signal p(t) which is a product of a block signal m2(t) and asinusoidal signal s(t) to which unwanted noise n(t) is added:

m1(t)=p(t)+n(t)=s(t)*m2(t)+n(t)

The product signal p(t) represents the periodic fluctuations caused bythe ball spin, and the other n(t) is the unwanted time-varyingfluctuations that are generally considered as noise and that masks thewanted spin induced periodic fluctuations. They combine by simpleaddition:

m1(t)=p(t)+n(t).

The fluctuations p(t) are oscillatory variations that occur usually onceor twice per ball rotation. Practical measurements show these variationsto approximate a single period sinusoid, repeated at a rate related tothe ball spin. A notable characteristic of an observable variation isthat its period is substantially shorter than the ball's rotationperiod, a factor explained by the ball lens action that makes a targethighly visible for only a part of a spinning ball's rotation.

From the theory of signals, p(t) can be considered as the product of twosignals s(t)*m2(t).

To illustrate this, assume s(t) to be a continuous sinusoidal signaloscillating with a period of the wavelet, and the second signal m2(t) tobe a block shaped signal with period related to the ball spin rate. Ifthe continuous signal is not a sinusoid but has another wave shape thatis nonetheless repetitive this difference does not affect the analysisas s(t) can then be taken as the fundamental harmonic of the continuoussignal.

The amplitude of the second signal m2(t) varies between 0 and 1, it hasa phase where amplitude changes from 0 to 1 at the same time as thecontinuous signal s(t) changes polarity. In addition, its duty cycle issuch that its amplitude remains at level 1 for exactly or approximatelythe period (one complete oscillation) of the continuous signal,otherwise the amplitude is 0.

The product of these two signals is a sinusoidal signalamplitude-modulated by the block signal.

From the above it is evident that the spin rate of the ball is containedin the period or frequency of the signal m2(t), and not in the productsignal p(t). Therefore, ball spin rate measurement includes a seconddemodulation step to separate m2(t) from s(t). Amplitude demodulationand band pass filtering is one method that can be used to separate m2(t)from the other components.

FIG. 14 illustrates the frequency spectrums produced by frequencyanalysis of the various components and combinations of these signals.The product signal p(t) has harmonics centered around the frequency ofthe sinusoidal signal s(t). This is not directly related to the ballspin frequency. Sidebands will however also be present in the spectrumaround this frequency. According to known theories of amplitudemodulation, these sidebands will be spaced at multiples of the frequencyof the second modulating signal m2(t), which is related to the ball spinrate. It is therefore clear that a second demodulation step can separatethe second modulating signal m2(t) from the product signal before theball spin frequency can be measured. If this is not done, the frequencyof the wavelet, which is an artifact of the ball lens action, will causeharmonics not related to the ball spin rate.

Additional Disclosure of the Apparatus and Process Pertaining toEmbodiments of the Invention

Doppler radar with at least one receiver channel

First demodulator (as one alternative it can be implemented in theProcessor, and as another alternative this can be a separate system)

Second amplitude demodulator (as one alternative it can be implementedin the Processor, and as another alternative this can be a separatesystem)

Signal filter (as one alternative it can be implemented in theProcessor, and as another alternative this can be a separate system)

Processor

Launch the golf ball

Receive reflected Doppler signals from a spinning ball

Demodulate the Doppler signal to discriminate the first modulationsignal

Filter the first modulation signal to favor signals with shape, durationand polarity consistent with ball lens action

Demodulate the first modulated signal to produce a second modulatingsignal (optional)

Demodulate the filtered signal to produce a second modulating signal(optional)

Perform frequency analysis on the filtered signal

Perform frequency analysis on the second modulating signal

Calculate the ball spin rate using ball spin rules

Output spin value

Output device

Store spin value

Data storage device

With reference to FIG. 4, a system configured to determine the spin rateof a golf ball (or other projectile) comprises a Doppler radar 410, afirst demodulator 411, a second demodulator 414, a processor 412, asignal filter 413, and an output device 415. Although six components arenamed, it is understood that one or more components can be combined intoa fewer number of components (e.g., processor 412 is provided withinoutput device 415, or first and/or second demodulators 411, 414 isincluded in processor 412) and/or a larger number of components (e.g.,transmitter and receiver of Doppler radar 410 are separately provided).The components can communicate with each other via a wired or wirelessconnection. For example, one or more components may form part of an adhoc network, an intranet, an extranet, a virtual private network (VPN),a local area network (LAN), a wireless LAN (WLAN), a wide area network(WAN), a wireless WAN (WWAN), a metropolitan area network (MAN), aportion of the Internet, a portion of the Public Switched TelephoneNetwork (PSTN), a cellular telephone network, a wireless network, a WiFinetwork, a WiMax network, another type of network, or a combination oftwo or more such networks.

With reference to FIG. 4 and FIG. 10, a Doppler radar 410 is used tomeasure the trajectory 46 of a golf ball 45 for at least an initial partof its flight path. The radar 410 comprises a transmitter and receiverthat may be co-located with or remote from each other. The radar 410 isset up in a position that gives it an advantageous view of the launchand flight path of the ball, such as behind the tee. The golf ball islaunched by striking it with a golf club. The radar receives thereflected signals from the golf ball, and extracts the Doppler signal bymultiplying the received signal with a copy of the transmitted signaland low-pass filtering the response.

The First Demodulator 411 detects variations in the phase and/oramplitude of the Doppler signal and produces a First Modulating signal.The First Modulating Signal includes the periodic variations caused bythe spinning motion of the ball and especially the characteristicvariations resulting from the ball lens effect.

A Signal Filter 413 enhances or detects the characteristic variations inthe First Modulating Signal utilizing the expected or known polarity andshape of the variations, producing a Filtered Signal from the FirstModulating signal. The Signal Filter 413 performs one or more filteringoperations on at least a portion of the First Modulating signal. Examplefiltering include, but is not limited to, signal sampling, band-passfiltering, band-limited filtering, correlation processing, frequency,pulse or wavelet transforms, and the like.

A Second Demodulator 414 detects a Second Modulating Signal from theFiltered Signal that is output from the Signal Filter 413. In someembodiments, the Second Modulating Signal is optional.

The Processor 412 performs a frequency analysis of either the SecondModulating Signal (if available) or the Filtered Signal that is outputfrom the Signal Filter 413 (if the Second Modulating Signal is notavailable).

The frequency analysis may be a simple fast Fourier transform (FFT)calculation to determine frequencies and magnitudes from the demodulatedsignal, or may be use alternative analysis methods such as wavelettransforms or pulse transforms that exploit the known or expectedcharacteristics of the Filtered Signal or of the Second Modulatingsignal.

The Processor 412 also performs additional tests and calculations on theresults of the frequency analysis to identify the spin rate of the golfball. Prior known and related measured information can also be used todetermine the golf ball spin rate. Prior information can includeknowledge of the golf club used, the expectation that modulationfrequencies occur at twice the ball spin rate due to the seam and balllens action, and/or measured club and ball data such as ball launchspeed and vertical launch angle.

The determined spin value is output to an output device 415 (e.g.,screen, memory, database, mobile device, communication device, computer,cell phone, smartphone, tablet, and the like). The spin value can alsobe stored for later utilization.

A Doppler radar 410 tracks a golf ball 44, 45 launched from a tee andtraveling along its flight path 46.

The radar is positioned approximately behind the tee and for most of thetime the golf ball will travel approximately away from the radar.

Ball spin 49 is caused by the golf club strike.

The radar signal is transmitted towards the ball 47 and reflected fromthe ball 48.

The received signal will exhibit Doppler shift due to the motion of theball. The radial speed of the ball relative to the radar will be theprimary contributor to the Doppler shift. The Doppler shift will also beaffected by the spinning motion of the ball. This includes spreading ofthe Doppler shift around the average, and periodic modulation effectsare caused by non-homogeneities on the ball such as dimples, seam, andmarkings. Both phase and amplitude modulation will occur.

The ball possesses characteristics that can be exploited to enhance themeasurement of modulation signals to extract the ball spin rate.

The first characteristic of importance is that the ball acts as a lensfor the microwave signals of the Doppler radar. The lens magnifies thereflective characteristics of local features on or near the ballsurface, causing detectable phase and amplitude modulation of theDoppler signal.

The modulation effect due to the lens action is also unique in that theapparent Doppler speed increases momentarily after which it decreasesbefore returning to the average traversing ball speed. This polarityfeature can be used to identify the desired modulation signals in thepresence of other unwanted variations.

The lens action also causes the modulation to occur time-wise when thefeature causing the modulation is on the far side of the ball away fromthe radar. This temporal characteristic can be used to discriminatebetween the desired modulation signal and unwanted variations that occurat other times during the ball's rotation.

In addition, the duration of the modulation effect is limited to thetime when the modulating feature traverses the magnifying zone on theball which may typically be in the order of 10-25% of the overall spinperiod. This feature is also used by the signal filter 413 and/or theprocessor 412 to discriminate between the desired modulation signal andother unwanted variations.

These characteristics, namely the relative temporal position, the timeduration, and the polarity of the modulation are unique characteristicsof the modulation that are used to discriminate against other signalvariations that mask or reduce the visibility of the desired modulationsignals.

The ball seam can be chosen as the primary feature of the ball for spinfrequency measurement. If the ball seam does not provide a sufficientmodulation effect, the ball may be deliberately marked with a reflectivefeature as discussed before.

Even if no control is exercised to orientate the seam (if this is thechosen modulating feature) when teeing up a golf ball, there is astatistically good probability that, after launch, the ball will spin onan axis relative to the radar and the seam in a way that a part of theseam will modulate the reflected Doppler signal. This is supported byexperimental results. The optimum transit point of the seam is the farside of the ball where the lens action will magnify the modulationresponse of the seam. In addition, the seam will, unless perfectlyperpendicular to the spin axis, cause a modulation effect twice per ballrotation. This factor can be exploited when measuring the ball spinrate.

The receiver will receive the signal reflected from the ball 1003 whichcontains a component related to the apparent translational speed of theball and components that include the spin-induced modulation as well asother random fluctuations and noise.

The receiver will detect the Doppler shifted signal 1004, including thetranslational and oscillatory signals as described above, by mixing thereceived signal with a signal derived from the transmitted signal, andretaining the difference signal.

This signal is demodulated 1005 using a for example a phase-locked loopdetector to extract the phase variations as a function of time. Thisdemodulated signal is then subsequently analyzed using any preferredfrequency analysis method or tool such as fast Fourier transform todetermine the amplitude and frequency of periodic components in thedemodulated signal, one component being the modulation from the ballseam with a fundamental rate which is twice the ball spin rate. Othermethods of demodulation may alternatively be used.

Because the phase modulation signal period is a fraction of the ballrotation period, higher order harmonics of the fundamental rate is alsoexpected. Hence the main responses searched for are harmonics at evenmultiples of the ball spin rate.

In addition, the modulation signal can be further analyzed to favormodulation signal shapes that have a shape, duration and polarityconsistent with that caused by the ball lens effect. This is analogousto inter alia the principles wavelet analysis, and provide a means tobetter distinguish between desired modulation signals and other randomor unwanted effects or noise.

Embodiments of the invention can be implemented using any Doppler radardesigned to measure the motions of a moving body, for example, golflaunch monitors and ball-tracking systems.

A suitable Doppler radar 410 is equipped with at least one receiver tomeasure the Doppler shifted signal reflected from a launched golf ball.The radar can be a continuous wave type operating in the microwave bandbetween 9 and 35 GHz and transmitting approximately 10 milliwatts ofpower.

A practical golf ball should contain at least one feature that willcause time-varying fluctuations in the Doppler signals reflected fromthe ball. These variations will cause phase and amplitude modulation ofthe Doppler signal at a periodic rate related to the ball spin.

A practical golf ball is also manufactured with a core comprising anelastomer such as resin acrylate that contributes to the ball being ableto act as a dielectric ball lens to amplify the size and motion of anyfeature on the far side of the ball relative to the radar.

The Doppler signal received by the radar is passed to a FirstDemodulator (e.g., Demodulator 411) to detect the changes in the phaseand amplitude of the Doppler signal 1005. The output of this FirstDemodulator is the First Modulating Signal.

The expected characteristics of the First Modulating Signal can beexploited in a further filtering step 1007 in a Signal Filter 413 todiscriminate between wanted signals and unwanted signals, also callednoise. The Signal Filter 413 may perform any known form of signalprocessing including but not limited to signal sampling, band-passfiltering, correlation processing, or frequency, pulse or wavelettransforms.

This output of the Signal Filter 413 is a Filtered Signal.

A Second Demodulator 414 may be used to amplitude-demodulate theFiltered Signal 1012 to produce a Second Modulating Signal.

Either the Filtered Signal or the Second Modulating Signal can besampled and processed by a processor 412. The processor is programmed toperform frequency analysis 1008 using for example the fast Fouriertransform (FFT) or any other analysis method able to determine theexistence and frequency of periodic variations of golf ball spin,typically between 1,000 and 15,000 revolutions per minute.

The processor applies additional rules 1009 to favor signals that haverates of multiples of the golf ball spin rate, for example if the seamof the ball provides two modulation effects per rotation.

The processor can also analyze the signal 1008 to favor parts of thesignal with a phase change pattern consistent with an initial increasein apparent ball velocity followed shortly thereafter by a decrease inball velocity, and this pattern occupying only a fraction of the timeperiod of one rotation that corresponds to the time that the target onthe ball that causes the modulation is magnified by the ball lenseffect.

The determined spin value can be output to an output device and/orstored in a storage device for later utilization.

In this manner, a Doppler radar measures the Doppler shifted signalreflected from a launched golf ball. The radar is positionedapproximately behind the tee and for most of the time the golf ball willtravel approximately away from the radar.

The Doppler signal received by the radar is passed to a Phase and/orAmplitude Demodulator to detect the changes in the phase and amplitudeof the Doppler signal. This time varying demodulated signal (which maybe additionally filtered and/or demodulated) is sampled and processed bya data processing device programmed to perform frequency analysis tomeasure the frequency of periodic variations related to golf ball spin.The processor also applies rules to favor harmonic signals with harmonicrates that are even multiples of the golf ball spin rate, and to favorparts of the signal with a phase change pattern consistent with the ballacting as a lens to magnify the modulating response of the ball seam orother non-homogeneous feature on or near the ball surface.

In other embodiments, the system and methodology described herein can beused to measure the spin rate of other sports balls or projectiles ingeneral that have dielectric properties that magnifies the modulatingeffect on the reflected Doppler signal from a feature of the ball orprojectile, respectively.

FIG. 11 shows a diagrammatic representation of a machine in the exampleform of a computer system 1100 within which a set of instructions, forcausing the machine to perform any one or more of the methodologiesdiscussed herein, may be executed. The computer system 1100 comprises,for example, any of the Doppler radar 410, first demodulator 411, signalfilter 413, second demodulator 414, processor 412, or output device 415.In alternative embodiments, the machine operates as a standalone deviceor may be connected (e.g., networked) to other machines. In a networkeddeployment, the machine may operate in the capacity of a server or adevice machine in server-client network environment, or as a peermachine in a peer-to-peer (or distributed) network environment. Themachine may be a server computer, a client computer, a personal computer(PC), a tablet, a set-top box (STB), a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA),a smart phone, a cellular telephone, a web appliance, or any machinecapable of executing a set of instructions (sequential or otherwise)that specify actions to be taken by that machine. Further, while only asingle machine is illustrated, the term “machine” shall also be taken toinclude any collection of machines that individually or jointly executea set (or multiple sets) of instructions to perform any one or more ofthe methodologies discussed herein.

The example computer system 1100 includes a processor 1102 (e.g., acentral processing unit (CPU), a graphics processing unit (GPU), orboth), a main memory 1104 and a static memory 1106, which communicatewith each other via a bus 1108. The computer system 1100 may furtherinclude a video display unit 1110 (e.g., liquid crystal display (LCD),light emitting diode (LED), touch screen, or a cathode ray tube (CRT)).The computer system 1100 also includes an alphanumeric input device 1112(e.g., a physical or virtual keyboard), a cursor control device 1114(e.g., a mouse, a touch screen, a touchpad, a trackball, a trackpad), adisk drive unit 1116, a signal generation device 1118 (e.g., a speaker)and a network interface device 1120.

The disk drive unit 1116 includes a machine-readable medium 1122 onwhich is stored one or more sets of instructions 1124 (e.g., software)embodying any one or more of the methodologies or functions describedherein. The instructions 1124 may also reside, completely or at leastpartially, within the main memory 1104 and/or within the processor 1102during execution thereof by the computer system 1100, the main memory1104 and the processor 1102 also constituting machine-readable media.

The instructions 1124 may further be transmitted or received over anetwork 1126 via the network interface device 1120.

While the machine-readable medium 1122 is shown in an example embodimentto be a single medium, the term “machine-readable medium” should betaken to include a single medium or multiple media (e.g., a centralizedor distributed database, and/or associated caches and servers) thatstore the one or more sets of instructions. The term “machine-readablemedium” shall also be taken to include any medium that is capable ofstoring, encoding or carrying a set of instructions for execution by themachine and that cause the machine to perform any one or more of themethodologies of the present invention. The term “machine-readablemedium” shall accordingly be taken to include, but not be limited to,solid-state memories, optical and magnetic media, and carrier wavesignals.

Statements

1. A method of determining a spin rate of a projectile, the methodcomprising receiving a reflected signal of microwave radiation incidenton the projectile during a rotational trajectory of the projectile, theprojectile including a non-homogeneous feature at or near a surface ofthe projectile; detecting, by at least one processor, modulation of thereflected signal attributable to the feature; and calculating the spinrate of the projectile based on the detected modulation.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the reflected signal comprises aDoppler radar reflection signal.

3. The method of any of claims 1 to 2, wherein the projectile comprisesa sport ball.

4. The method of any of claims 1 to 3, wherein the projectile comprisesa golf ball.

5. The method of any of claims 1 to 4, wherein the feature comprises aseam, a signage, or a manufacturing occurring feature.

6. The method of any of claims 1 to 5, wherein the detection of themodulation comprises detecting an increase in an amplitude of thereflected signal at a first time during a period of rotation of theprojectile and a decrease in the amplitude of the reflected signal at asecond time during the period of rotation of the projectile.

7. The method of any of claims 1 to 6, wherein the detection of themodulation comprises detecting a delay in a phase of the reflectedsignal at a first time during a period of rotation of the projectile andan advance in the phase of the reflected signal at a second time duringthe period of rotation of the projectile.

8. The method of any of claims 6 to 7, wherein a time period defined bythe first and second times corresponds to the feature being located on afar side of the projectile relative to a source of the microwaveradiation.

9. The method of claim 8, wherein the time period is less than half theperiod of rotation of the projectile.

10. The method of any of claims 1 to 9, wherein the spin rate is afunction of a refraction index of a material included in the projectile.

11. The method of claim 10, wherein the material comprises a dielectricmaterial.

12. The method of claim 10, wherein the material comprises a corematerial of the projectile.

13. The method of any of claims 10 to 12, wherein the detection of themodulation comprises detecting a magnifying effect of the feature by thematerial behaving as an optical lens.

14. The method of any of claims 1 to 13, wherein the calculating of thespin rate comprises using integer multiples of a periodic modulationfrequency of the detected modulation.

15. The method of any of claims 1 to 14, wherein the detecting of themodulation of the reflected signal produces a first demodulated signal,and further comprising filtering the first demodulated signal to producea filtered signal prior to the calculating of the spin rate.

16. The method of claim 15, wherein the calculating of the spin rate isbased on the filtered signal.

17. The method of claim 15, further comprising demodulating the filteredsignal to produce a second demodulated signal, wherein the calculatingof the spin rate is based on the second demodulated signal.

18. The method of claim 15, wherein the filtering of the firstdemodulated signal comprises at least one of signal sampling, band-passfiltering, band-limited filtering, correlation processing, frequencytransforms, pulse transforms, or wavelet transforms.

19. The method of any of claims 1 to 18, wherein the calculating of thespin rate comprises frequency analysis.

20. A system, comprising a Doppler radar configured to receive areflected signal of microwave radiation incident on a projectile duringa rotational trajectory of the projectile, the projectile including anon-homogeneous feature at or near a surface of the projectile; ademodulator in communication with the Doppler radar and configured toprocess the reflected signal to identify modulation of the reflectedsignal attributable to the feature; and at least one processor incommunication with the demodulator and configured to calculate a spinrate of the projectile based on the identified modulation.

21. The system of claim 20, wherein the system is configured to performoperations of any of claims 1 to 19.

22. The system of any of claims 20 to 21, further comprising a filter toreceive a first demodulated signal from the demodulator and configuredto filter the first demodulated signal to output a filtered signal.

23. The system of claim 22, wherein the at least one processor isconfigured to calculate the spin rate using the filtered signal.

24. The system of claim 22, further comprising a second demodulatorconfigured to output a second demodulated signal based on the filteredsignal.

25. The system of claim 24, wherein the at least one processor isconfigured to calculate the spin rate suing the second demodulatedsignal.

26. The system of any of claims 20 to 25, further comprising an outputdevice in communication with the at least one processor, the outputdevice configured to store or display the calculated spin rate.

27. The system of claim 26, wherein the output device is in wiredcommunication with the at least one processor.

28. The system of claim 26, wherein the output device is in wirelesscommunication with the at least one processor.

Non-Limiting Embodiments

It will be appreciated that, for clarity purposes, the above descriptiondescribes some embodiments with reference to different functional unitsor processors. However, it will be apparent that any suitabledistribution of functionality between different functional units,processors or domains may be used without detracting from the invention.For example, functionality illustrated to be performed by separateprocessors or controllers may be performed by the same processor orcontroller. Hence, references to specific functional units are only tobe seen as references to suitable means for providing the describedfunctionality, rather than indicative of a strict logical or physicalstructure or organization.

Certain embodiments described herein may be implemented as logic or anumber of modules, engines, components, or mechanisms. A module, engine,logic, component, or mechanism (collectively referred to as a “module”)may be a tangible unit capable of performing certain operations andconfigured or arranged in a certain manner. In certain exampleembodiments, one or more computer systems (e.g., a standalone, client,or server computer system) or one or more components of a computersystem (e.g., a processor or a group of processors) may be configured bysoftware (e.g., an application or application portion) or firmware (notethat software and firmware can generally be used interchangeably hereinas is known by a skilled artisan) as a module that operates to performcertain operations described herein.

In various embodiments, a module may be implemented mechanically orelectronically. For example, a module may comprise dedicated circuitryor logic that is permanently configured (e.g., within a special-purposeprocessor, application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), or array) toperform certain operations. A module may also comprise programmablelogic or circuitry (e.g., as encompassed within a general-purposeprocessor or other programmable processor) that is temporarilyconfigured by software or firmware to perform certain operations. Itwill be appreciated that a decision to implement a module mechanically,in dedicated and permanently configured circuitry, or in temporarilyconfigured circuitry (e.g., configured by software) may be driven by,for example, cost, time, energy-usage, and package size considerations.

Accordingly, the term “module” should be understood to encompass atangible entity, be that an entity that is physically constructed,permanently configured (e.g., hardwired), non-transitory, or temporarilyconfigured (e.g., programmed) to operate in a certain manner or toperform certain operations described herein. Considering embodiments inwhich modules or components are temporarily configured (e.g.,programmed), each of the modules or components need not be configured orinstantiated at any one instance in time. For example, where the modulesor components comprise a general-purpose processor configured usingsoftware, the general-purpose processor may be configured as respectivedifferent modules at different times. Software may accordingly configurethe processor to constitute a particular module at one instance of timeand to constitute a different module at a different instance of time.

Modules can provide information to, and receive information from, othermodules. Accordingly, the described modules may be regarded as beingcommunicatively coupled. Where multiples of such modules existcontemporaneously, communications may be achieved through signaltransmission (e.g., over appropriate circuits and buses) that connectthe modules. In embodiments in which multiple modules are configured orinstantiated at different times, communications between such modules maybe achieved, for example, through the storage and retrieval ofinformation in memory structures to which the multiple modules haveaccess. For example, one module may perform an operation and store theoutput of that operation in a memory device to which it iscommunicatively coupled. A further module may then, at a later time,access the memory device to retrieve and process the stored output.Modules may also initiate communications with input or output devicesand can operate on a resource (e.g., a collection of information).

Although the present invention has been described in connection withsome embodiments, it is not intended to be limited to the specific formset forth herein. One skilled in the art would recognize that variousfeatures of the described embodiments may be combined in accordance withthe invention. Moreover, it will be appreciated that variousmodifications and alterations may be made by those skilled in the artwithout departing from the scope of the invention.

The Abstract is provided to allow the reader to quickly ascertain thenature of the technical disclosure. It is submitted with theunderstanding that it will not be used to interpret or limit the scopeor meaning of the claims. In addition, in the foregoing DetailedDescription, it can be seen that various features are grouped togetherin a single embodiment for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure.This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting anintention that the claimed embodiments require more features than areexpressly recited in each claim. Rather, as the following claimsreflect, inventive subject matter lies in less than all features of asingle disclosed embodiment. Thus the following claims are herebyincorporated into the Detailed Description, with each claim standing onits own as a separate embodiment.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of determining a spin rate of aprojectile, the method comprising: receiving a reflected signal ofmicrowave radiation incident on the projectile during a rotationaltrajectory of the projectile, the projectile including a non-homogeneousfeature at or near a surface of the projectile; detecting, by at leastone processor, modulation of the reflected signal attributable to thefeature; and calculating the spin rate of the projectile based on thedetected modulation.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the reflectedsignal comprises a Doppler radar reflection signal.
 3. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the projectile comprises a sport ball.
 4. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the projectile comprises a golf ball.
 5. The method ofclaim 1, wherein the feature comprises a seam, a signage, or amanufacturing occurring feature.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein thedetection of the modulation comprises detecting an increase in anamplitude of the reflected signal at a first time during a period ofrotation of the projectile and a decrease in the amplitude of thereflected signal at a second time during the period of rotation of theprojectile.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the detection of themodulation comprises detecting a change in a phase of the reflectedsignal at a first time during a period of rotation of the projectile andan advance in the phase of the reflected signal at a second time duringthe period of rotation of the projectile.
 8. The method of claim 6,wherein a time period defined by the first and second times correspondsto the feature being located on a far side of the projectile relative toa source of the microwave radiation.
 9. The method of claim 8, whereinthe time period is less than half the period of rotation of theprojectile.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the spin rate is afunction of a refraction index of a material included in the projectile.11. The method of claim 10, wherein the material comprises a dielectricmaterial.
 12. The method of claim 10, wherein the material comprises acore material of the projectile.
 13. The method of claim 10, wherein thedetection of the modulation comprises detecting a magnifying effect ofthe feature by the material behaving as an optical lens.
 14. The methodof claim 1, wherein the calculating of the spin rate comprises usinginteger multiples of a periodic modulation frequency of the detectedmodulation.
 15. The method of claim 1, wherein the detecting of themodulation of the reflected signal produces a first demodulated signal,and further comprising filtering the first demodulated signal to producea filtered signal prior to the calculating of the spin rate.
 16. Themethod of claim 15, wherein the calculating of the spin rate is based onthe filtered signal.
 17. The method of claim 15, further comprisingdemodulating the filtered signal to produce a second demodulated signal,wherein the calculating of the spin rate is based on the seconddemodulated signal.
 18. The method of claim 15, wherein the filtering ofthe first demodulated signal comprises at least one of signal sampling,band-pass filtering, band-limited filtering, correlation processing,frequency transforms, pulse transforms, or wavelet transforms.
 19. Themethod of claim 1, wherein the calculating of the spin rate comprisesfrequency analysis.
 20. A system, comprising: a Doppler radar configuredto receive a reflected signal of microwave radiation incident on aprojectile during a rotational trajectory of the projectile, theprojectile including a non-homogeneous feature at or near a surface ofthe projectile; a demodulator in communication with the Doppler radarand configured to process the reflected signal to identify modulation ofthe reflected signal attributable to the feature; and at least oneprocessor in communication with the demodulator and configured tocalculate a spin rate of the projectile based on the identifiedmodulation.
 21. The system of claim 20, further comprising a filter toreceive a first demodulated signal from the demodulator and configuredto filter the first demodulated signal to output a filtered signal. 22.The system of claim 21, wherein the at least one processor is configuredto calculate the spin rate using the filtered signal.
 23. The system ofclaim 21, further comprising a second demodulator configured to output asecond demodulated signal based on the filtered signal.
 24. The systemof claim 23, wherein the at least one processor is configured tocalculate the spin rate suing the second demodulated signal.
 25. Thesystem of any of claim 20, further comprising an output device incommunication with the at least one processor, the output deviceconfigured to store or display the calculated spin rate.
 26. The systemof claim 25, wherein the output device is in wired communication withthe at least one processor.
 27. The system of claim 25, wherein theoutput device is in wireless communication with the at least oneprocessor.